Digital Phablet

Tag: geology

  • Venus Might Still Host Active Volcanoes, Study Reveals

    Venus Might Still Host Active Volcanoes, Study Reveals

    Venus features massive rift valleys that indicate the planet may still be geologically active. NASA/JPL/USGS

    For many years, scientists thought Venus was a dead world with little to no activity inside. Despite being Earth’s closest neighbor, Venus is incredibly harsh. Its surface temperatures are hot enough to melt lead, the atmosphere is extremely thick, and the pressure is about 90 times greater than Earth’s. There are no oceans, forests, or signs of life as we know them.

    However, recent research suggests that beneath this tough exterior, Venus might still be a dynamic, changing planet. Researchers from ETH Zurich utilized a sophisticated computer simulation to explore how some of Venus’s large cracks, called rift valleys, may have formed more recently than previously believed. Their study, published in Nature Geoscience, adds to evidence that Venus remains geologically alive and might even host active volcanoes today. The project was led by Professor Taras Gerya and MSc student Xi Yang from the university’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.

    A major clue lies in the giant rift valleys. These vast cracks appear when a planet’s crust is pulled apart by forces deep within. On Earth, the East African Rift Valley is a well-known example. On Venus, some of these rifts are much larger, extending up to 10,000 kilometers. Traditionally, scientists assumed these features formed over 100 million years ago and had not changed since. But the new study questions this belief.

    Using a detailed 3D computer simulation, the team recreated how Venus’s rift valleys could develop. Unlike older, simpler models, these new simulations offered a more realistic view of how the planet’s crust behaves. They showed that young or still-active rift valleys develop broad, elevated edges called rift flanks, which stay steep while the crust is moving apart. Over time, once the activity ceases, these flanks gradually flatten as the crust relaxes under its weight—without erosion by water, since Venus lacks liquid surface water.

    The simulations also indicated that these rift zones might expand up to 3 to 10 centimeters annually, much faster than previously thought. When these results were compared with images from NASA’s Magellan spacecraft, taken in the 1990s, many of Venus’s rift valleys still displayed the tall, steep flanks characteristic of relatively young features. This points to the possibility that parts of Venus are still tectonically active today.

    These discoveries could help future missions target the most promising areas for study. NASA and the European Space Agency are preparing new spacecraft for Venus exploration, planned for the early 2030s. ESA’s EnVision mission, for example, aims to investigate from the planet’s deep interior to its upper atmosphere.

    Beyond understanding Venus, this research enhances our knowledge of how rocky planets evolve—insights that could inform our understanding of distant Earth-like worlds orbiting other stars.

  • Tiny Diamond Unveils Hidden Water Route Within Earth’s Interior

    Tiny Diamond Unveils Hidden Water Route Within Earth’s Interior

    A tiny gemstone from Brazil has provided new, compelling evidence that water may penetrate much deeper into Earth’s interior than previously believed. Inside this small diamond, scientists discovered a mineral capable of enduring the crushing pressures and extreme heat of the Earth’s lower mantle. This suggests it could serve as a conduit, transporting water hundreds of kilometers beneath the planet’s surface.

    Published in Scientific Reports, the study was led by Brazilian researchers utilizing the advanced Sirius particle accelerator at the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory. The diamond itself is only about 3 millimeters in diameter but contains microscopic mineral inclusions that serve as natural time capsules, offering a glimpse into conditions deep within the Earth from hundreds of millions of years ago — a record preserved within the gemstone’s interior where direct exploration is impossible.

    One standout mineral found within the diamond is goethite, an iron-rich mineral commonly found on Earth’s surface and responsible for the brown hues in many soils. It also forms on the ocean floor when iron-rich rocks interact with water. Notably, goethite contains water within its crystal structure, leading scientists to believe it could play a significant role in transporting water into Earth’s depths.

    Previously, many believed that goethite could not survive the intense conditions during subduction, the process where oceanic tectonic plates sink into the mantle. Under such circumstances, rising temperatures were thought to cause the mineral to break down and release its water relatively shallow in the Earth’s interior. However, this recent discovery suggests a more complex story.

    The diamond originated from the Juína region of Brazil, an area famous for producing rare super-deep diamonds. Unlike most diamonds that form roughly 150 kilometers below the surface, these originate at depths exceeding 300 kilometers and are brought to the surface by magma during volcanic eruptions. Many of these diamonds contain mineral inclusions, which, though often considered imperfections, are incredibly valuable because they provide rare insights into Earth’s deep interior.

    Using high-powered X-ray imaging and spectroscopy at Sirius, researchers meticulously examined around 100 mineral inclusions within the diamond. One particular inclusion was surprising because it appeared to contain iron hydroxide — a mineral rarely expected to be found inside Earth’s mantle. Further tests identified goethite along with hematite and magnetite within this sealed inclusion. Finding these three minerals together was unexpected because they do not typically coexist under surface conditions.

    Laboratory experiments have shown that goethite can withstand pressures up to 57 gigapascals and temperatures approaching 1,800°C — the extreme conditions present between approximately 900 and 1,250 kilometers beneath Earth’s surface in the lower mantle. The researchers propose that goethite might survive inside cooler sections of sinking oceanic plates. As the mineral gradually alters into other iron-rich minerals, it releases the water stored within its structure deep inside the mantle.

    This hidden water could be crucial for Earth’s geology. Water reduces the melting point of rocks, enabling small amounts of magma to form. Over extended periods, this magma may ascend, contributing to volcanic activity. Some scientists believe this process could be integral to forming the volcanic rocks that eventually reintroduce diamonds—even super-deep ones—back to the surface.

    This research marks a significant milestone for Brazilian science, representing the first comprehensive study of a super-deep diamond conducted entirely by a Brazilian team using Brazilian facilities. Beyond revealing the extraordinary journey of this tiny gemstone, the findings shed light on how water moves through Earth’s interior—potentially more interconnected with surface water cycles than previously understood. This enhances our understanding of the long-term geological processes that shape our ever-changing planet.

  • Australian Salt Lakes Could Uncover Mars’ Ancient Water History

    Australian Salt Lakes Could Uncover Mars’ Ancient Water History

    Could the remote landscapes of Western Australia hold some of the best clues about ancient Mars? A recent study suggests that unusual salt lakes in Australia’s Yilgarn Craton might help scientists understand how water once shaped the Red Planet—and where traces of early life could still be hiding.

    Published in Earth and Space Science, the research draws parallels between lakes in Western Australia’s Yilgarn Craton and landforms found in Terra Sirenum, a large region in Mars’ southern hemisphere.

    Although Mars is currently cold and arid, scientists believe liquid water once flowed across its surface. Investigating how water behaved there is crucial because it could reveal whether early Mars had conditions suitable for life. The Yilgarn Craton is among Earth’s oldest crustal regions, dotted with thousands of shallow lakes that are both salty and acidic. These lakes fill periodically during wet seasons and dry out as conditions change. These cycles produce a diverse array of minerals that become preserved within the lake beds over time.

    To better understand these dynamic environments, researchers collected samples from 40 lakes during both wet and dry seasons to monitor changes in water chemistry as levels fluctuated. The findings showed distinct responses among the lakes: some left behind thick salt deposits as water evaporated, while others accumulated minerals like aluminum-rich clays and iron oxides. Variations in acidity and salinity depended on interactions among groundwater, rainfall, evaporation, and surface processes over time.

    These mineralogical patterns are significant because similar deposits have been identified inside craters within Terra Sirenum on Mars. The similarities imply that Mars experienced hydrological processes akin to those observed in Western Australian lakes. This suggests groundwater and repeated wet-dry cycles may have played a larger role in shaping the Martian landscape than previously thought.

    The study also questions the traditional view that volcanic activity was the main driver behind mineral-rich regions on Mars. Instead, the findings point to prolonged water-rock interactions as key factors in forming many of these geological features.

    Most exciting is what these extreme Australian lakes reveal about the potential for life. Despite their high salinity and acidity, these lakes support diverse microbial communities that have adapted to survive under seemingly hostile conditions. This raises the possibility that ancient environments on Mars, like Terra Sirenum, could have supported microscopic life billions of years ago. Although direct evidence of past life on Mars remains elusive, Terra Sirenum emerges as a promising target for future missions searching for biosignatures.

    By examining Earth’s most extreme settings, scientists gain valuable insights into another world’s history. Western Australia’s unique lakes may not only shed light on how water moved and stored on Mars, but also guide humanity’s quest to answer one of the greatest questions: Did life ever exist on the Red Planet?

  • Ancient 3-Billion-Year-Old Asteroid Crater Reveals Earth’s Turbulent Past

    Ancient 3-Billion-Year-Old Asteroid Crater Reveals Earth’s Turbulent Past

    Scientists have verified the age of the oldest known asteroid impact crater on Earth, revealing that a massive space debris collided with our planet roughly 3 billion years ago. This discovery offers new insights into the violent events that shaped early Earth’s development. The investigation was conducted by researchers from Curtin University and the Geological Survey of Western Australia.

    Their focus was the North Pole Dome in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, an area suspected to contain remnants of an ancient asteroid impact. For decades, scientists had been unable to determine precisely when this impact occurred. The recent study, published in the journal Geology, employed advanced analytical techniques to date tiny minerals within the damaged rocks. These methods produced the most accurate estimate yet for when the collision happened.

    Lead researcher Professor Chris Kirkland explained that the asteroid impact left behind what can be described as a “mineral clock.” The extreme heat and pressure from the collision altered certain minerals, allowing scientists to deduce the timing of the event by examining these changes.

    One key mineral studied was zircon, a particularly tough and tiny crystal that can endure for billions of years, often preserving valuable clues about Earth’s past. At North Pole Dome, researchers discovered zircon crystals with unusual branching shapes, which they believe were damaged and partially reconstructed by the intense heat during the impact. When they measured the age of these zircons, they found them to be approximately 3 billion years old.

    To verify their findings, the team also analyzed another mineral called apatite. This mineral tends to form later, when hot fluids move through cracks in rocks following an impact. Strikingly, apatite yielded the same age as the zircon crystals, reinforcing the accuracy of the dating.

    Professor Kirkland stated that the consistency between two very different minerals provides strong confidence that they correctly identified the timing of a singular, major asteroid collision. This discovery establishes North Pole Dome as the oldest confirmed impact crater on Earth and the only known impact structure from the Archean Eon—a period when Earth’s earliest continents were beginning to form and life was still in its infancy.

    Uncovering evidence of such ancient impacts is particularly challenging because, over billions of years, rocks undergo transformations due to heat, pressure, erosion, and underground fluids, often erasing signs of the original impact. In this case, however, researchers successfully distinguished the evidence of the asteroid strike from subsequent geological alterations.

    This finding advances our understanding of Earth’s impact history, pushing known impact events further back in time than ever before. Scientists hope that these insights will shed light on how asteroid collisions influenced the planet’s surface formation, early continental development, and possibly even conditions suitable for the emergence of life.

    The researchers emphasize that discoveries like this underscore the significance of Western Australia’s ancient geology, which continues to unveil extraordinary stories from Earth’s earliest days.

  • How to Find Oil by Solving Abiotic Factor Mysteries

    How to Find Oil by Solving Abiotic Factor Mysteries

    GATE’s facility in Abiotic Factor offers numerous resources related to the Abiotic Factor, including various liquids. You’ll find standard drinking water, different acids, radioactive waste, water filled with alien fish, and the classic: oil.

    Oil can be used to craft various useful items, such as the Chopinator, which is excellent for defending your base against enemies and hostile creatures, or a cart for transporting heavy materials between areas. As with other resources, you’ll need to scavenge what remains of GATE to find oil.

    ### Where to Find Oil

    Oil is a key resource used in many crafting recipes. It can be found throughout GATE’s facilities, but the most common spots are the Office Sector and Manufacturing West.

    A reliable early source is Bio Lab D on Level Two of the Office Sector, where oil often appears on the counters and inside cabinets on both sides of the room.

    Note: Items in certain areas will eventually stop respawning unless you enable Simple Loot Respawning in your game’s sandbox settings.

    Bio Lab D connects to the Locker Room, where oil can also be found inside lockers, on the floor near the lockers, or next to benches.

    Other locations where you’re likely to find oil include:

    – Executive Office area on Level Three
    – Office rooms on Level Three
    – Filing Cabinets on Levels Two and Three
    – Shelves and filing cabinets in the Garage of Manufacturing West
    – Kitchen counters and cabinets in break rooms

    Toolboxes across the facility may also contain oil, with the Office Sector generally having higher chances. The Locker Room in the Security Office can also have oil.

    ### Alternatives to Oil

    Since resources like oil aren’t infinite and eventually stop respawning in an area, you can find alternative sources of oil that work in the same way.

    Fish Oil is the easiest renewable solution. You can use it in any recipe requiring oil, and there’s no limit to how many fish you can catch—there’s no cap on spawning.

    To fish, you’ll need a fishing rod, which becomes available once you gather staplers and desk phones, needing just a few resources to craft at a workbench. The components are:

    – Stapler (found on office desks or inside filing cabinets)
    – Desk Phone (found on desks)
    – Plastic Scrap (from binders, inside cabinets, or dropped from broken crates)
    – Wood Planks (from breaking wooden crates or furniture like desks and coffee tables)

    Fish can be caught in different bodies of liquid, such as the gym pool or radioactive waste in Manufacturing West. While fishing, bait can help increase your chances of catching fish instead of junk, though it’s not necessary.

    Be cautious: fishing in radioactive waste exposes you to radiation and nearby enemies like Exor and Grunts, so protective gear is recommended.

    ### Butchering Fish

    Once you catch a fish, such as a Moon Fish or Rad Fish, you’ll need to butcher it on the Fish Prepping side of the Chef’s Counter, a cooking station unlocked early in the game that requires four materials:

    – Wood Plank (from broken crates or furniture)
    – Power Supply Unit (from dismantling tower PCs)
    – Metal Pipe (from wall pipes in storage areas)
    – Metal Scrap (from lootables, dismantling metal items, or soda cans)

    Place the Fish Prepping station near a power source, select the fish processing side, and use it to butcher your catch. Each fish yields Fish Oil and Fish Bones, along with raw fillets of the fish type. Depending on the fish, you may also get other resources — for example, Moon Fish can produce sugar crystals.

    ### What Is Oil Used For?

    Oil appears in many crafting recipes, most notably in the Chopinator, which is essential for base defense and enemy management. It’s also needed for:

    – Platform Carts to transport heavy loads over long distances
    – Heaters to keep areas warm
    – Levers that switch machines on and off
    – Bionic Legs, a mid to late-game gear piece

    Items crafted with oil require various resources, such as:

    | Item | Resources Needed |
    |——————|—————————————————————|
    | Chopinator | Metal Scrap x4, Metal Pipe x1, Energy Brick x1, any Oil x1 |
    | Platform Cart | Metal Scrap x4, Plastic Scrap x4, any Oil x1, Metal Pipe x3 |
    | Heater | Coil x3, Case Fan x4, Pressure Gauge x1, any Oil x1 |
    | Lever | Any Oil x1, Coil x1, Metal Scrap x2, Metal Pipe x1 |
    | Bionic Legs | Jailbroken CPU x2, Tech Scrap x20, Refined Carbon x2, any Oil x4 |

    Oil remains a critical resource throughout the game for crafting important devices and items necessary for progressing and defending your base.

  • NASA’s Mars Rover Collects Unique Rock Sample

    NASA’s Mars Rover Collects Unique Rock Sample

    Perseverance's 26th rock sample collected from the Martian surface.
    NASA’s Mars Perseverance rover captured this image of its 26th rock sample, dubbed “Silver Mountain.” The image was taken with its onboard Sample Caching System Camera, which is located beneath the rover. This camera provides a close-up view down into a sample tube prior to sealing and storing the collected material.
    NASA/JPL-Caltech

    NASA is thrilled about a remarkable rock specimen recently collected by its Perseverance rover on Mars.

    The agency referred to this sample as “a unique treasure,” highlighting its composition, which is rich in low-calcium pyroxene (LCP). This makes it a particularly intriguing find, as it was extracted from the only location along the rover’s trajectory where such low-calcium pyroxene was identified from space.

    A post on Perseverance’s X account described the sample—named Silver Mountain—as something “unlike anything we’ve seen before.” The rock core has been sealed in a sample tube for future transportation to Earth for detailed analysis.

    I’ve successfully climbed out of Jezero Crater and am back to #SamplingMars! My 26th sample, known as “Silver Mountain,” features textures that are unprecedented. I’ve sealed the rock core in a sample tube, ensuring it can be analyzed in labs on Earth later. pic.twitter.com/YqEPZnDnfR

    — NASA’s Perseverance Mars Rover (@NASAPersevere) January 29, 2025

    NASA described this particular sample collection as “a crucial milestone in our quest to understand the geological history of Jezero Crater.”

    This achievement signifies Perseverance’s return to active exploration after spending much of the latter part of last year ascending the slopes of Jezero Crater, which it has been meticulously studying since its dramatic landing there four years ago.

    The rover navigated a distance of 1,640 feet (500 meters) over a three-and-a-half-month period, taking scheduled breaks to conduct scientific observations as part of its ongoing mission to seek evidence of ancient microbial life on Mars.

    Meanwhile, NASA is actively exploring the most effective strategy for executing its Mars Sample Return mission, which aims to transport all the samples gathered by Perseverance back to Earth. This intricate process involves landing a spacecraft on Mars, retrieving the collected samples, transferring them to an orbiting craft, and finally bringing them back to Earth.

    A successful Mars Sample Return mission would provide scientists the opportunity to study Martian material in laboratory settings, potentially revealing insights into whether life once existed on the red planet, as well as enhancing our understanding of its geological history and evolution.